![]() ![]() It was observed that bone marrow-derived MSCs are the principal type of MSCs used in TE, and the most commonly employed techniques for MSCs characterization are immunodetection techniques. This review aimed to summarize the state of the art of the main sources of MSCs as well as particular characteristics of each subtype and applications of MSCs in TE in seven different areas (neural, osseous, epithelial, cartilage, osteochondral, muscle, and cardiac) with a systemic revision of advances made in the last 10 years. Among the cell sources, the utilization of mesenchymal cells (MSCs) has gained great interest because these multipotent cells are capable of differentiating into diverse tissues, in addition to their self-renewal capacity to maintain their cell population, thus representing a therapeutic alternative for those diseases that can only be controlled with palliative treatments. Tissue engineering (TE) is a therapeutic option within regenerative medicine that allows to mimic the original cell environment and functional organization of the cell types necessary for the recovery or regeneration of damaged tissue using cell sources, scaffolds, and bioreactors. Notably, implantation of a system that allows sustained release of BMP can provide an effective method to treat bone nonunion and delayed bone healing in the clinic. This review aims to explain the mechanism of BMP action in vivo, its biological function, and how BMP can be applied to orthopaedic implants to effectively stimulate bone healing in the long term. It is particularly important to modify implants to carry BMP to achieve slow and sustained release effects by taking advantage of the nature of the implant. However, the mechanism of BMP in vivo still needs to be explored, and application of BMP alone to a bone defect site cannot achieve good therapeutic effects. ![]() Current results show that BMPs can promote healing of bone defects and reduce the occurrence of complications. Since the discovery of bone morphogenetic protein (BMP), it has been widely used in various studies due to its powerful role in promoting osteogenesis and chondrogenesis. This finding could have application in the development of mechanically competent stem cell-based tissue engineering of cartilage regeneration.Īt present, bone nonunion and delayed union are still difficult problems in orthopaedics. We optimize and demonstrate that electrospray microsphere fabrication is a cytocompatible and facile process to produce the hBMSC-embedded microsize tissue-like particles that can easily be assembled into a stable construct. The possibility to seed and assemble microspheres in designed 3D-printed PCL scaffolds for the fabrication of a mechanically stable and biological supportive tissue engineering cartilage construct was demonstrated. The Alg-Gel composition selected allows conservation of hBMSC viability and supports proliferation and matrix deposition. Optimization of hBMSC-embedded Alg-Gel microspheres produced by electrospray has been performed. Similarly, the GAG content, GAG/DNA ratio as well as Coll 2 and Aggr gene expression were increased in the last two groups. Interestingly, hBMSCs embedded in microspheres assembled in 3D-printed PCL scaffold and cultured in a 3D bioreactor were more proliferative in comparison to the previous two groups (p < 0.05). Alginate with gelatin hydrogel improved viability and promoted hBMSC proliferation better than alginate microspheres. Nonaggregated, low polydispersity and almost spherical microspheres of average diameter of 200-300 μm were produced with alginate 1.5 w: v%, gelatin (Type B) concentration of 0.5 w: v % and CaCl2 coagulating bath concentration of 3.0 w: v %, using 30G needle size and 8 kV and 0.6 bar voltage and air pressure, respectively. Cell viability, proliferation and chondrogenic differentiation were evaluated, and mechanical test was performed. Then, four groups were set: Alg-hBMSC microspheres cultured in the 2D well plate (Alg-hBMSCs+2D) group, Alg-Gel-hBMSC microspheres cultured in the 2D well plate (Alg-Gel-hBMSCs+2D) group, Alg-Gel-hBMSC microspheres embedded in PCL scaffold cultured in the 2D well plate (Alg-Gel-hBMSCs+2D) group and Alg-Gel-hBMSCs microspheres cultured in the 3D bioreactor (Alg-Gel-hBMSCs+3D) group. ![]() PCL scaffolds were designed and printed by melt extrusion. The fabrication of the Alg-Gel microspheres using an electrospray technique was optimized in terms of polydispersity, yield of microspheres and circularity and varying fabrication conditions. Our study reports the optimization of electrospray human bone marrow stromal cell (hBMSCs)-embedded alginate-gelatin (Alg-Gel, same as following) microspheres for the purpose of their assembly in 3D-printed poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) scaffold for the fabrication of a mechanically stable and biological supportive tissue engineering cartilage construct. ![]()
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